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What Is Called Thinking Knowledge by Duncan Pritchard
Duncan Pritchard’s "What is this thing called Knowledge?" (first published in 2006) is one of the most widely used introductory textbooks in contemporary epistemology. It is prized for its ability to take dense, centuries-old philosophical debates and present them in a clear, conversational, and highly structured manner.
Pritchard doesn't just list theories; he invites the reader to "do" philosophy by testing their intuitions against famous thought experiments.
1. The Starting Point: The JTB Account
Pritchard begins with the "Standard Analysis" of knowledge that dominated philosophy from Plato until the 1960s. For a person to know something, three conditions must be met:
Truth: You cannot "know" something that is false.
Belief: You must actually believe the thing you claim to know.
Justification: You must have good reasons or evidence for that belief.
Together, these form Justified True Belief (JTB).
2. The Gettier Revolution
A central pillar of the book is explaining why the JTB account is considered incomplete today. Pritchard explains Gettier Cases—scenarios where someone has a justified true belief, but it only happens to be true by sheer luck.
The Broken Clock Example: You look at a clock that says 12:00. You believe it is 12:00. By total coincidence, the clock is broken, but it actually is 12:00.
The Conclusion: You have a justified true belief, but most philosophers (and Pritchard) argue you don't have "knowledge" because your success was accidental.
3. Internalism vs. Externalism
Pritchard spends significant time on the "where" of justification:
Internalism: To have knowledge, you must be able to "reflectively access" your reasons. You have to know why you know.
Externalism: You can have knowledge even if you don't understand the underlying process, as long as your belief-forming method is reliable.
Example: A "chicken sexer" who can perfectly distinguish male from female chicks but has no idea how they are doing it might still be said to "know" under an externalist view.
4. The Problem of Skepticism
The book tackles the "Big Scary Questions" of philosophy:
The Brain-in-a-Vat: How do you know you aren't just a brain in a laboratory being fed electrical impulses by a scientist?
The Closure Principle: If I know I am sitting in a chair, and sitting in a chair implies I am not a brain-in-a-vat, do I therefore know I am not a brain-in-a-vat?
Pritchard’s Take: He explores "Contextualism" (the idea that the standards for "knowledge" change depending on the stakes) and "Moorean Dogmatism" as potential ways to fight back against the skeptic.
5. Specialized Branches of Knowledge
Unlike older textbooks, Pritchard includes modern "social" aspects of epistemology:
Testimony: When is it rational to believe what other people tell us?
Perception: Can we trust our senses, or are they always "theory-laden"?
Virtue Epistemology: Should we define knowledge based on the character traits of the thinker (e.g., being open-minded, intellectually courageous)?
6. Why This Book is the "Gold Standard"
The "Companion" Structure: Each chapter ends with a summary, study questions, and "Annotated Further Reading," making it perfect for self-study.
Clarity of Language: Pritchard avoids unnecessary jargon. When he uses a technical term like "Ariority" or "Reliabilism," he defines it immediately with a real-world example.
Neutrality: He presents the strengths and weaknesses of every theory, allowing the reader to decide which philosophical "camp" they belong to.
A Philosophical Insight
"Knowledge is more than just getting it right. It is about getting it right in a way that is 'credited' to you—where your success is down to your own intellectual agency rather than a lucky guess."